List of persons considered father or mother of a scientific field
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Those known as the father, mother, or considered the founder of a scientific field are the scientists who have made important contributions to that field. In some fields several people are considered the founders, while in others the title of being the "father" is debatable.
Contents |
[edit] Natural sciences
[edit] Biology
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Arabic botany | Al-Dinawari[1] | For his Book of Plants, which described at least 637 plants, and discussed plant evolution and the phases of plant growth |
| Bacteriology | Robert Koch, Ferdinand Cohn, Louis Pasteur[2] (founders) |
For their studies and scientific findings on bacteria and algae |
| Biology[3] | Aristotle[4] | |
| Entomology | William Kirby | |
| Entomology in North America | Thomas Say[5] | |
| Evolution and natural selection | Charles Darwin[6][7][8] | Publication: On the Origin of Species |
| Genetics | Gregor Mendel[9] | For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance |
| Ichthyology | Peter Artedi[10] | |
| Lichenology | Erik Acharius[11] | |
| Microbiology | Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[12] | The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria |
| Molecular biology | Linus Pauling[13] | |
| Molecular biophysics | Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[14] | Founded the Molecular Biophysics Unit (1970) |
| Neuroscience | Santiago Ramón y Cajal[15] (founder) |
For his formation of neuron doctrine |
| Taxonomy | Carolus Linnaeus [16](founder) |
Naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world |
| Toxicology | Paracelsus[17] | |
| Virology | Martinus Beijerinck[18] (founder) |
His studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology |
[edit] Chemistry
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Atomic theory (modern) | Father Roger Boscovich[19] | For the first coherent description of atomic theory, well over a century before modern atomic theory emerged. |
| Chemical thermodynamics (modern) | Gilbert Lewis, Willard Gibbs Merle Randall, and Edward Guggenheim (founders)[20] | Books: Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933); because of the major contributions of these two books in unifying the applications of thermodynamics to chemistry |
| Chemistry (early) | Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)[21][22][23][24] | Introduced the experimental method in alchemy (d. 815) |
| Chemistry (modern) | Antoine Lavoisier[25] Robert Boyle[25] Jöns Berzelius[26][27] John Dalton[25] (founders) |
Book: Elements of Chemistry (1787) Book: The Sceptical Chymist (1661) Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s) Revival of atomic theory (1803) |
| Nuclear chemistry | Otto Hahn[28] | Book: Applied Radiochemistry (1936) First person to split an atomic nucleus (1938) Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of nuclear fission (1944) |
| Periodic table | Dmitri Mendeleev[29] | Arranged sixty-six elements (known at the time) in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869) |
| Physical chemistry | Hermann von Helmholtz,
Willard Gibbs(founders)[30] |
Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry through their publications off, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances(1876), and Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange(1882) |
[edit] Earth sciences
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Geodesy | Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[31][32] | |
| Geology (early) | Avicenna [33] | For formulating law of superposition and developing uniformitarianism concept in The Book of Healing (1027). |
| Geology (modern) | Father Nicholas Steno [34] |
For setting down most of the principles of modern geology. For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory of thought. |
| Limnology (modern) | G. Evelyn Hutchinson[36] | |
| Meteorology | Matthew Fontaine Maury[37] | |
| Naval oceanography (modern) | Matthew Fontaine Maury[37] | |
| Stratigraphy | Father Nicholas Steno [34] |
[edit] Medicine and physiology
[edit] Physics and Astronomy
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Acoustics | Ernst Chladni[72] | For important research in vibrating plates |
| Aerodynamics | Nikolai Zhukovsky George Cayley[73] |
Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built |
| Classical mechanics | Isaac Newton (founder)[74] | Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) |
| Electricity | William Gilbert[75] Michael Faraday[citation needed] Benjamin Franklin[citation needed] Thomas Edison[76] Nikola Tesla[citation needed] |
Book: De Magnete (1600) Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831) Proposed a kite experiment to prove that lightning is electricity (1750) Invented many electrical devices, such as the carbon microphone Invented alternating current and many other electrical devices |
| Energetics | Willard Gibbs[77] | Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876) |
| Experimental physics | Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[78][79] | For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021) |
| Indian astronomy | Aryabhata[80] | Publication: Aryabhatiya (499) |
| Modern astronomy | Nicolaus Copernicus[81] | Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543) |
| Modern physics | Galileo Galilei[82] | His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope |
| Nuclear physics | Ernest Rutherford[83] | Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909) |
| Nuclear science | Marie Curie Pierre Curie[84] |
|
| Optics | Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[85] | Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021). |
| Quantum mechanics | Max Planck (founder)[86] | Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form |
| Relativity | Albert Einstein(founder)[87] | Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915) |
| Spaceflight (Rocketry) | Robert Hutchings Goddard Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Hermann Oberth |
Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. |
| Thermodynamics | Sadi Carnot (founder)[88] | Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824) |
[edit] Formal sciences
[edit] Mathematics
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Algebra See also Father of Algebra |
Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[89][90] Diophantus[91][92] |
Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline. First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica. |
| Algorithm | Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[90] | Explained the algorism, an early algorithm for performing arithmetic with Indian-Arabic numerals |
| Analytic geometry | René Descartes Pierre de Fermat[93](founders) |
For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System |
| Applied mechanics (modern) | Stephen Timoshenko[citation needed] | Reputed to be the father of modern applied mechanics. Wrote many of the seminal works in this area, many of which are still used today. |
| Calculus | Isaac Newton[94] Gottfried Leibniz |
See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy. |
| Classical analysis | Madhava of Sangamagrama[95] | Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions |
| Computer Science | Alan Turing | Provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine. |
| Descriptive geometry | Gaspard Monge[96] (founder) |
Developed a graphical protocol which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane |
| Geometry | Euclid[97] | Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms. |
| Non-Euclidean geometry | János Bolyai, Nikolai Lobachevsky[98](founders) |
Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true |
| Probability | Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[99] (founders) | Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book |
| Projective Geometry | Gérard Desargues[100](founder) | By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away |
| Tensor calculus | Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[101] (founder) |
Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus |
| Trigonometry | Aryabhatta, Hipparchus[102][103] | Constructed the first trigonometric table. |
| Vector algebra, Vector calculus |
Willard Gibbs[30] Oliver Heaviside[104] (founders) |
For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus |
[edit] Systems theory
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Chaos theory | Edward Lorenz [105] | Lorenz attractor |
| Cybernetics | Norbert Wiener [106] | Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948. |
| Dynamic programming | Richard E. Bellman | |
| Fuzzy logic | Lotfi Asker Zadeh | |
| Information theory | Claude Shannon[107] | Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948) |
| Optimal control | Arthur E. Bryson[108] | Book: Applied Optimal Control[109] |
| Robust control | George Zames[citation needed] | Small gain theorem and H infinity control. |
| Stability theory | Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed] | Lyapunov function |
[edit] Social sciences
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Anthropology | Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[31][110] | |
| Demography | Ibn Khaldun[111] | Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377) |
| Egyptology | Father Athanasius Kircher[112] | First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery. Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone. |
| Indology | Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[110] | Wrote the Indica and Critical study of what India says |
| Political science (modern) | Niccolò Machiavelli[113] | Discussion of and concern with how people actually behave, as opposed to how people should behave. |
| Sociology | Ibn Khaldun[111][114] Adam Ferguson[115] Auguste Comte[116] |
Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena). "Father of modern sociology" Introduced the scientific method into sociology. |
[edit] Other
| Subject | Father / Mother of ... | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Experimental science | Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[117] | For developing a systematic experimental approach to science in his Book of Optics (1021) |
| Modern science | Galileo Galilei[118][119] | For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy |
| Scientific method | Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[120] Francis Bacon[121] |
Pioneered earliest scientific method in his Book of Optics (1021). Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620). |
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Fahd, Toufic, "Botany and agriculture", pp. 815, in Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
- ^ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
- ^ Suggested 1802 by German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term that year in France by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
- ^ a b Strong, W.F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php
- ^ Schuh, Randall T. (1995). True Bugs of the World: Classification and Natural History. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2066-0., p. 11
- ^ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
- ^ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
- ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
- ^ The Father of Genetics
- ^ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company., online at [1], p.390: "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."
- ^ "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology," Department of Cryptogamic Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History. Link. 17 December 1999.
- ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
- ^ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
- ^ Prathap, Gangan (March 2004), "Indian science slows down: The decline of open-ended research", Current Science 86 (6): 768-769 [768]
- ^ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
- ^ Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
- ^ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
- ^ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539-543.
- ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- ^ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2.
- ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246–258 [247]
- ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
- ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
- ^ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
- ^ a b c Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6.
- ^ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
- ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
- ^ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
- ^ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
- ^ a b Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
- ^ a b Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
- ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ Medvei, Victor Cornelius (1993), The History of Clinical Endocrinology: A Comprehensive Account of Endocrinology from Earliest Times to the Present Day, Taylor and Francis, p. 46, ISBN 1850704279
- ^ a b Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- ^ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
- ^ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
- ^ a b Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
- ^ Diseases of the Mind: Highlights of American Psychiatry through 1900 - Benjamin Rush
- ^ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-873-9., p. 2: the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University..."
- ^ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-711-2., p. 912: "Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."
- ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
- ^ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-03128-3., p. 235: "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."
- ^ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
- ^ Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
- ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631–1641.
- ^ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
- ^ Log In Problems
- ^ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
- ^ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
- ^ Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’
- ^ Mostafa Shehata, MD (2004), "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration", J Med Ethics 12, p. 171-176 [176].
- ^ = DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2007/05/10/scegypt10.xml How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
- ^ Jimmy Dunn, Imhotep, Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser.[2]
- ^ Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus., U.S. National Library of Medicine
- ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation.
- ^ Nirupama Laroia, M.D. and Deeksha Sharma (June 2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus", Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2), p. 94-98.
- ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy" (in English). http://www.fauchard.org/publications/remembrance.htm. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
- ^ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0., p.9: "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of wheat flour, cow's milk, malt flour and bicarbonate of potash."
- ^ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
- ^ [3]
- ^ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
- ^ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
- ^ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday., p.270: "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."
- ^ a b A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
- ^ a b H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
- ^ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
- ^ Aaen-Stockdale, Craig (2008), "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics", Perception 37 (4): 636–638
- ^ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3., p.6: "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'". See also Harry Armstrong.
- ^ Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
- ^ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
- ^ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
- ^ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
- ^ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
- ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
- ^ Kurland, Gerald. 91972). Thomas Edison, father of electricity and master inventor of our modern age, Charlotteville, N.Y.: SamHar Press.
- ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
- ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 15: 329–331
- ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (August 2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005", Historia Mathematica 32 (3): 271-274
- ^ Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987), "The “day of Brahman” in the work of Āryabhata", Archive for History of Exact Sciences 38 (1): 13-22}}
- ^ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
- ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0595368778.
- ^ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5.
- ^ Resources
- ^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
- ^ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
- ^ [4]. URL accessed December 5, 2006.
- ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
- ^ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
- ^ a b Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
- ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 228. ISBN 0471543977. "Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khwarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers."
- ^ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra". Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 31. ISBN 030909657X. "Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE."
- ^ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
- ^ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
- ^ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
- ^ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
- ^ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
- ^ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
- ^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
- ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
- ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
- ^ Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 162. ISBN 0471543977. "For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as "the father of trigonometry." Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles."
- ^ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE (Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems". Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc.. pp. 176–179. ISBN 0-486-65620-9. "The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans. … It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables.")
- ^ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
- ^ Edward Lorenz, father of chaos theory and butterfly effect, dies at 90 - MIT News Office
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